The Nagas

Introduction

The term "Naga" is used to describe groups of tribesmen of Indian and Chinese descent living in the hill country along the border of far eastern India and northwestern Burma. This article delves into the history, culture, and way of life of the Naga people, who were once known for headhunting. The name "Naga" was given to them by the Ahom people in Assam, and its origin remains uncertain. This article explores the Naga people's unique identity, their history, language, religion, traditions, and daily life.

Historical Background

The origin of the Nagas is still a mystery. Little is known about any group believed to be from China that migrated south of the Himalayas. It is believed that the Nagas and other Indians of Chinese descent originated in a region between the Yellow and Yangtze rivers in northwestern China and migrated to India in waves over several centuries. Their original settlements were around the Irrawaddy and Chindwin rivers in Burma. There were contacts between Aryan tribes and tribes of Chinese descent. These Chinese tribes spoke various languages and had different customs and social structures. Over time, they migrated into Assam, the Cachar Hills, and what is now Nagaland.

During British rule, the Nagas had contact with the British but were never fully controlled by them. Some Nagas paid tribute to the British, and they were involved in trade, exchanging items like salt, cotton, medicinal herbs, and ivory for Assamese rice, cloth, and beads. The British considered their rule to be benign, prohibiting Indians from serving as administrators in Naga territory and working to end intratribal conflicts. Christian missionaries arrived in the region and made significant conversions.

Naga Independence Movement

The Nagas have never considered themselves part of India. On August 14, 1947, Naga leaders declared their independence over a region that became known as Nagaland, one day before India gained independence. However, India asserted its authority over this small state, leading to a long-standing struggle for Naga independence. The Nagas have been fighting for their independence, with support from China and Pakistan at times.

India assimilated Nagaland in 1952. The Nagas boycotted India-imposed elections and engaged in civil disobedience in 1953, which escalated into an armed struggle in 1955. In response, Indian troops were called into the area. A cease-fire was declared in 1964 but ended in 1972. Violence continued until the signing of the Shillong Accord in 1975. Since then, Nagaland has been ruled under presidential rule by the Indian government, with sporadic calls for more autonomy.

Language and Religion

Nagas speak languages and dialects belonging to the Tibeto-Burman family. There is great linguistic diversity among the Nagas, with around 30 recognized languages and dialects. Many Nagas also speak English due to Christian schooling and exposure to foreign programs on satellite television. The majority of Nagas are Christians, particularly Baptists, due to the work of Baptist missionaries.

Traditional Religion

Despite the Christian majority, traditional beliefs in spirits, local deities, and supernatural forces associated with life events remain strong among some Naga tribes. Spirits are associated with both animate and inanimate objects and are often regarded as either gods or souls of deceased people. Various religious practitioners hold specific roles within tribes, including healers, diviners, and sorcerers.

Ceremonies and Arts

Naga culture is rich in ceremonies and arts. They conduct gennas, which are important ceremonies held at different times throughout the year, linked to the agricultural calendar and often accompanied by behavioral restrictions. Singing and dancing are integral to these ceremonies, with each tribe having its distinct dance style. The Naga New Year festival is celebrated on January 14 and 15.

Funerals

Funeral practices vary among Naga tribes. Among the Angami, the deceased is buried with specific items, and the belief in the afterlife varies. Good people are thought to join the sky god, while the souls of the bad pass through seven existences below the earth.

Marriage and Family

Naga marriage traditions vary, with both ceremonial and non-ceremonial forms. Polygamy is allowed in some tribes, and divorce is permitted. In some cases, men allow male relatives to have relations with their wives if they are absent for an extended period. The Naga family unit typically consists of a husband, wife, and a few children, with property inheritance patterns based on the clan system.

Economic Activities

Naga tribes are engaged in various economic activities, including agriculture, hunting, and trade. They grow staple crops like rice and millet on terraces and jhum land cleared from the forest. Naga farmers also engage in hunting for food and raise domestic animals. Blacksmithing, pottery, woodworking, and basketry are common village-level industries, while trade networks exist among different Naga tribes.

Villages and Homes

Naga villages are traditionally established on hilltops with defensive features. Fortifications were once common, but they are no longer used as intertribal conflict has ceased. The houses in Naga villages vary in size and structure but typically consist of separate compartments for storage, living, and cooking.

Food and Clothing

The Nagas have a simple yet diverse diet that includes crops like rice, millet, maize, and various vegetables. They also consume roasted grubs and drink rice beer and rice wine. Naga men and women wear distinctive clothing and accessories, with men wearing bamboo headdresses, necklaces, and bracelets. Naga women traditionally have tattoos, which serve as a form of protection.

Government and Health

Naga villages are governed by a council of elders and chiefs, with government-appointed officials known as gaonburas facilitating administration. The Nagas have access to education and healthcare, thanks to the work of missionaries. Traditional healing rituals are also practiced, often involving religious practitioners and various potions.

Naga Society, Warfare, and Headhunting

Naga society revolves around patrilineal clans and kindreds. Clan loyalty is highly valued, and personal identity is closely linked with clan membership. Conflict between tribes, clans, and villages was common in the past, with headhunting being a part of warfare. Traditional weapons included spears and shields, and headhunting continued into the early 20th century. The practice was largely eradicated through the efforts of the British, missionaries, and the Indian government.

Naga Villages

Naga settlements were traditionally established at elevations between 900 and 1200 meters on hilltops that could be defended from neighboring tribes. In the past, villages were fortified with guarded entrances and booby traps, but these features are no longer in use.

Sources: Various

Re-edited taken from Text Sources: Encyclopedia of World Cultures: East and Southeast Asia, edited by Paul Hockings (C.K. Hall & Company); New York Times, Washington Post, Los Angeles Times, Times of London, The Guardian, National Geographic, The New Yorker, Time, Newsweek, Reuters, AP, AFP, Wall Street Journal, The Atlantic Monthly, The Economist, Global Viewpoint (Christian Science Monitor), Foreign Policy, Wikipedia, BBC, CNN, NBC News, Fox News and various books and other publications. © 2008 Jeffrey Hays