The Sangtams are a prominent Naga tribe predominantly residing in the Tuensang and Kiphire districts of Nagaland, India.¹ They are united under the common banner called "United Sangtam" and inhabit 62 villages: 24 under the Longkhim-Chare sub-division of Tuensang district and 38 under Kiphire district. Seven government administrative towns fall under their jurisdiction. In recent years, additional Sangtam land has been recognized under Dimapur district, specifically Tsithrongse, Sangtamtila, and Murise villages.²
Like many other tribal groups in Northeast India, the Sangtams practice jhum, or shifting cultivation. Uniquely among some Naga tribes in Nagaland, many Sangtams have maintained their traditional beliefs despite simultaneously embracing Christianity.³ The Sangtams celebrate twelve different festivals, all linked to their traditional culture and religion, with Mongmong being particularly significant.⁴
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Festivals
The Sangtams are a community that deeply values feasting, dance, and music, integral components of their vibrant cultural life. With approximately 12 festivals scattered throughout the calendar year, some are dedicated to specific gennas (rituals/restrictions), but most revolve around themes of food production, blessings, and prosperity.⁵
The Mongmong festival stands out as one of the most significant. This festival primarily focuses on religious and spiritual rituals, where the Sangtams offer reverence to the Supreme Being. It is observed annually during the first week of September and spans a duration of six days.⁶
Mongmong, which translates to 'togetherness forever,' is a meticulously observed festival emphasizing the desire for a bountiful harvest, the culmination of the villagers' year-long toil in the fields. The festival unfolds in several stages:⁷
Gathering at the Village Well: The festival begins with the oldest man in the village leading a procession to the village well, marking the start of festivities, with others following.
Collecting Firewood (Singkithsa): On the second day, villagers collect and store firewood.
Worship and Cooking Stones (Musüyangdup): The third day is dedicated to worship and the community-wide preparation of cooking stones, signifying "feeding the oven."
Clearing and Cleaning (Kikha-langbi): The fourth day is dedicated to clearing weeds from paths leading to fields, inter-village roads, the village well, and other areas.
Visiting Relatives and Sharing (Shilang Wuba Nyumong): On the fifth day, villagers visit relatives, friends, and neighboring villages. It's a time for sharing meats, drinks, and exchanging gifts, primarily in the form of meat.
Harvest Begins (Akatisingkithsa): The final day marks the beginning of the harvest. The Sangtam Nagas believe their god is pleased and hope for blessings to ensure a fruitful harvest and good health for their families.
While these festivals are rich in animist traditions, they also historically fostered a sense of national unity and spiritual motivation among the Sangtam people.⁸
The advent of Christianity has led to a reassessment of "Mongmong"'s significance within the Sangtam community and among Nagas generally. This has given rise to three types of festivals: traditional animist festivals, festivals infused with Christian values, and festivals influenced by post-modern trends. While some Christians do not actively encourage the church's involvement, religious leaders and churches are increasingly promoting the idea of "Christ in Culture" or "Christ in Festivals." The colorful rituals and offerings to the Supreme Being during these festivals are now interpreted as manifestations of "Christ in Culture." The sociological theory of religion suggests that religion originated through communal gatherings; thus, Mongmong, celebrated with melodious songs and music, fosters peace and unity within families and the broader community.⁹
The Sangtam Dao: A Symbol of Embrace
In many societies, external signs worn or inscribed on the body serve as identity markers, signifying affiliation with a tradition, whether religious or otherwise (e.g., Christians wearing a cross). These symbols can also denote rank and power structures, differentiate insiders from outsiders, and act as "symbols of exclusion," affirming exclusive identity, distinguishing rank, and setting the wearer apart.¹⁰
However, historical and anthropological instances reveal these symbols can also become "symbols of embrace," fostering connection and unity despite differences. This concept is exemplified by the Sangtam Dao, a type of Naga sword.¹¹
The Nagas are not confined to Nagaland; they also inhabit regions in Manipur, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, and neighboring Myanmar. The term 'Naga' was coined by British colonials to describe the people of this hilly region. Nagaland itself officially recognizes sixteen tribes, each with unique culture, language, ornaments, clothing, and food habits, defining their distinct tribal identities.¹²
For example, the Sangtam Nagas, residing partly in Tuensang and Kiphire districts, have their distinct Sangtam dialect and unique ornamentation and attire. Even within the Sangtam community, social stratification can be observed based on clothing and housing, with various bodily signs and symbols often creating a sense of exclusion that sets one Sangtam Naga apart from another.¹³
Amidst these symbols of exclusion, the Sangtam Dao serves as a symbol of embrace, fostering unity rather than division. Daos are typically carried in a wooden scabbard worn around the hip and serve various purposes. When two villages or clans wish to establish peace or sign a peace treaty (Yangtsa or Mongtsü), they exchange these bodily symbols – the Daos. This practice was prevalent among the pre-Christian Sangtam Nagas, who frequently engaged in wars and headhunting.¹⁴
The peace process begins with the selection of a representative, Langbürü, who mediates negotiations. After an agreement is reached, the host village presents livestock (e.g., pigs or cows) to the departing visitors, which is then divided among them before they reach their village. This gesture signifies the continuation of friendship and a commitment to mutual protection in times of need. This exchange of Daos and other symbols thus signifies embrace and togetherness, rather than exclusion.¹⁵
These symbols of embrace hold relevance beyond their historical context. In a contemporary world often marked by divisive identity politics, these practices offer inspiration for fostering togetherness and unity. Such rituals of exchange can be instituted among neighbors, colleagues, business partners, clients, service providers, recipients, and friends. These acts of unity can open new possibilities and opportunities, fostering growth and success. The Sangtam Dao serves as a powerful reminder of unity and togetherness, encouraging the creation of new connections in a world that urgently needs them for positive advancement.¹⁶
The Indigenous Food System
The Sangtam Nagas are recognized not only for their rich cultural heritage and traditional arts and crafts but also for their diverse indigenous food items. Primary indigenous food staples include **millet, job's tears, sorghum, barley, and beans, locally known as "Kholar."**¹⁷
Food and Culture
In ancient times, millet, job's tears, sorghum, and barley served both as sustenance and as key ingredients for making rice beer. Rice beer production was a luxury for wealthier community members, requiring surplus food resources. Producing the finest rice beer was a matter of pride and social standing. Elders and friends often gathered at the homes of skilled brewers, fostering social connections and preserving tradition and culture.¹⁸
The Role of Millet, Job's Tears, Sorghum, and Barley
These grains were exclusively used for both sustenance and for crafting the best rice beer cocktails. In ancient times, before modern tea, rice beer was the beverage of choice, served to guests and friends during festivals and marriages. Elders emphasize that these grains remain essential components of Sangtam culture and tradition, asserting that technologically produced rice and food should not undermine the preservation of their food habits or the safeguarding of their culture and identity.¹⁹
Social and Cultural Significance
In ancient times, wealth and power were measured not by monetary value but by the number of baskets of millet, job's tears, sorghum, and barley in one's granaries. During marriages, especially among the affluent, gifts were valued not by material worth but by the quantity of these grains presented by the bride's family upon her departure. This gesture was highly respected and symbolized social status.²⁰
Sorghum, Ginger, and Eggs in Rituals
Sorghum, ginger, and eggs held significant roles in Sangtam culture and religion, used as offerings during ritualistic ceremonies in ancient times. These items purified new land for village establishment and sanctified new harvests before consumption. With the advent of Christianity, these practices have largely ceased. For elders, food was not merely about nourishing the body but also defined their tribal identity; culture itself was intertwined with food.²¹
Beans (Kholar)
One of the most renowned food items is their indigenous beans, "Kholar," highly prized for its exceptional taste and flavor. Kholar is a staple in Sangtam households, prepared using various techniques, such as cooking with smoked pork, fresh pork, or local potatoes from Kiphire. To enhance flavor and digestibility, Kholar is soaked in water for a few hours. Kiphire is renowned for producing high-yielding, top-quality Kholar in Nagaland, and local farmers cultivate it for both personal consumption and commercial purposes.²²
The Preservation of Food and Culture
The intangible heritage of tribal populations, including their traditional knowledge systems and food practices, contains invaluable elements that contribute to human cultural richness and diversity. Every human community has developed unique ways of life to meet needs by interacting with their environment over generations. These processes connect living communities with their ancestors and are essential for maintaining cultural diversity and promoting human creativity. Preserving intangible heritage is crucial for humanity's advancement, safeguarding cultural diversity and ensuring the continuity of traditions, which contributes to global well-being and development.²³
Kinship Terminology
The Sangtam Nagas, a significant ethnic group in eastern Nagaland, have limited ethnographic documentation, particularly concerning their kinship systems. Their system is distinctive and deviates from conventional kinship categories within the broader Naga context.²⁴
Sangtam territory is divided into two regions by a mountain range that forms the watershed between India and Myanmar. The western section, formerly the Northern Sangtam, resides in Tuensang District, while the eastern section, previously the Central Sangtam, occupies the Kiphire district west of the Zungki (or Tiho) River.²⁵
Historically, Sangtam territories may have been continuous, with migration from south to north. This continuity was disrupted by the eastward expansion of the Sumi Nagas and the westward movement of the Yimchungru Nagas before European contact. The Sangtam's immediate neighbors include the Ao, Chang, Yimchungru, Tikhir, Makhuri, Chirr, and Longpfür Nagas to the east, and the Pochury to the south.²⁶
Sangtam Naga society follows a patrilineal and patrilocal structure. They have named, non-localized, exogamous patrilineal clans or "ahong." Approximately seventeen clans have been recorded, though this list may not be exhaustive. Major clans, such as Thongrü, Jingrü, Mongzarü, Anaru, Langti Thongrü, and Rudy Thongrü, are spread throughout Sangtam territory, while others have more localized distribution.²⁷
The Sangtam kinship system uses ahong titles similarly to Western surnames. Clans may have subclans or patrilineages, but there is no specific term for these subdivisions; all are referred to as ahong. For example, Kuchirü, Shunyak Kurü Thongrü, and Süngthang Thongrü are subdivisions of the Thongrü clan, and members of these subclans cannot marry other Thongrü clan members. The Sangtam language is spoken by about 80,000 people and belongs to the Tibeto-Burman language family. Within Sangtam, there are various dialects, including Longkhim, Kiphire, Sanphure, Hurong, Phelungre, and Alisopur.²⁸
Sangtam kinship terms are independent nouns consisting of a root and a neutral, non-relational prefix "a-" (e.g., aja, "grandmother"). The vocative form, used for direct address, is created by prefixing the kinship noun root with the possessive marker "i-" (e.g., ija, "my grandmother"). An exception is the term for father, "ua." The second person singular term is formed by adding the prefix "nü-" (e.g., nüja, "your grandmother"). Kinship noun roots are never used in isolation; they are always prefixed.²⁹
Certain kin terms have a feminine form created by suffixing the root with the feminine semantic gender markers "-tpüh" or "-la," while the masculine form remains unmarked. For example, aphüli refers to both a sister's child and son, while aphülitpüh specifically means the sister's daughter. The plural gender for most kin terms is formed by adding the suffix "-rü." Vocatives convey the relationship or attitude between interlocutors. Seniors are addressed using proper kin terms as a sign of respect, while personal names are used for juniors and contemporaries to indicate familiarity or intimacy.³⁰
The Sangtam kinship system, while unique and atypical within the broader Naga context, exhibits features aligning with Lévi-Strauss's model of kinship structures in his "Elementary Structures of Kinship." It combines elements of both restricted exchange or bilateral marriage and generalized exchange or asymmetrical cross-cousin marriage. The presence of multiple terms for the same degree of kinship based on clan affiliation and consistent symmetric terminology do not fully align with their marriage rules, making the Sangtam kinship system a distinctive and intriguing model.³¹
In summary, the Sangtam kinship system, although atypical and divergent in certain aspects, presents an interesting blend of features that set it apart from other Naga kinship systems, inviting further exploration and research.³²
Notes
"Sangtam," Wikipedia, accessed July 20, 2025,
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