The Tangkhuls are a significant ethnic group residing in the Indo-Burma border area, primarily in the Ukhrul and Kamjong districts of Manipur, India, and extending into the Somra tract hills, Layshi, Homalin, and Tamu townships in Myanmar (Burma). Despite this international border, many Tangkhuls continue to perceive themselves as "one nation."¹ Those living in Myanmar are also known as Hogo Naga, Eastern Tangkhul, or Somra Tangkhul. The Kokak Naga and Akyaung Ari Naga are also tribally included within the broader Tangkhul Naga tribe, although their languages are quite distinct. Notably, the Tangkhul (Somra/Hogo) language spoken in Myanmar is very different from the Tangkhul (Ukhrul) spoken in India. Villages in the northern regions like Jessami, Soraphung, and Chingjaroi (Swimai) exhibit cultural variations from the main Tangkhul group, showing stronger cultural ties with the Chakhesang (Jessami and Soraphung) and Poumai (Chingjaroi) tribes.²
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History
The Tangkhuls, like other hill tribes, arrived in Manipur, Nagaland, Assam, and Arunachal Pradesh through successive waves of immigration from Myanmar. Their history is intertwined with that of the Angamis, Chakhesangs, Zeliangrongs, Maos, Poumais, Marams, and Thangals, as many of these tribes share references to their dispersal from Makhel, a Mao village in Senapati district, where they erected megaliths to commemorate their scattering in various directions.³
Tangkhul traditions also point to their forefathers' association with the seashore. Many traditional Tangkhul ornaments, such as kongsang and huishon, were crafted from sea shells, cowrie, and conch shells—a prominent feature among coastal communities.⁴ The exodus of the Tangkhuls from China to Myanmar and then finally to India is regarded as a tale of human courage and endurance in the face of great famine in China during those times, as they traversed snow-covered landscapes, mountains, and wild forests, confronting wild beasts and other tribes. Based on ethnicity, these groups, including the Tangkhuls, can be collectively identified as Naga.⁵
Over time, each Tangkhul village evolved into a small republic, similar to ancient Greek city-states. Every village operated under an unwritten constitution, guided by age-old conventions and traditions. Tangkhul villages were self-sufficient, except for salt, and were self-governing units ruled by a hereditary or elected chief, assisted by a Council of Elders. The chief served as judge, administrator, and commander.⁶
Hunphun served as the headquarters of the Tangkhul Long (Tangkhul Assembly). The annual Tangkhul fair, locally known as "Leih Khangapha," was traditionally held at Somsai in Ukhrul.⁷
The boundary between Manipur and Burma (Myanmar) was established by an agreement between the British authorities (East India Company) and Burma on January 9, 1834, on the bank of the Nighthee (Chindwin) river. Article No. 4 (iii) of this agreement specifically pertained to the Tangkhul country: "Fourth (iii) - On the north, the line of boundary will begin at the foot of the same hills at the northern extremity of the Kabaw Valley and pass due north up to the first range of hills, east of that upon which stand the villages of Chortor (Choithar), Noongbee (Nungbi), Nonghar (Lunghar), of the tribe called by the Munepooriis (Manipuris) Loohooppa (Tangkhul), and by the Burmahs Lagwensoung, now tributary of Manipoor." This demarcation, made without the knowledge or consent of the Tangkhuls, resulted in many Tangkhul villages in the Somrah hills, Layshi, Tamu, and Homalin townships being included under Burma. Consequently, when India and Burma gained independence, the Tangkhuls found themselves belonging to two different countries.⁸
Language
The Tangkhul tribe exhibits hundreds of regional dialects, with each village having its own distinct dialect, including Khangoi, Khunggoi, Kupome, Phadang, Roudei, and Ukhrul. While the Tangkhul Naga tribe speaks over a hundred dialects, the lingua franca is the Hunphun dialect. The Hogo Naga, or Eastern Tangkhul/Somra Tangkhul in Burma, speak the Somra dialect.⁹
A slightly modified English alphabet is used for the Tangkhul language. The Tangkhul Language has been included in the CBSE syllabus, marking it as the first Tribal language from Northeast India to achieve this recognition.¹⁰
Demographics
Accurate and comprehensive demographic data for the Tangkhul population across both India and Myanmar can be challenging to obtain due to the diversity of dialects and varying reporting methods. However, available information provides some insights into their literacy rates and village distribution.
Literacy Rate in First Language
Due to the wide diversity in dialects and the lack of a fully standardized language, precisely gauging the literacy level in Tangkhul is difficult. However, there's an observable trend where many young Tangkhuls are losing their proficiency in the language, often preferring to use English for expressing more complex ideas. Several factors contribute to the standardization of English as the primary medium of learning and communication. Firstly, the Tangkhul language currently lacks the rich vocabulary to term various concrete and abstract objects and ideas that are readily available in English. Secondly, the rapid emergence of Western education, which significantly uplifted the lives and standards of Tangkhuls, led people to neglect learning their own language, making it a secondary subject. Thirdly, the idea of globalization has also influenced people to prioritize external languages and cultures over their own native tongue.¹¹
Literacy Rate in Other Languages
English is taught in primary schools, and a high number of people are able to read the Roman script. Almost all young people can read and write the Roman script, though older individuals tend to be less proficient. The overall literacy rate among Tangkhuls is reported to be 79%.¹² There are both English and bilingual publications, such as the magazine The Legacy and the English newspaper The Aja Daily. Aja is edited by Mrs. Valley Rose Hungyo, the only female editor in the state. A new bilingual daily newspaper, The Shirui Lily Times, commenced publication in Ukhrul district headquarters on August 16, 2010. Owned and published by Shimreingam A. Shatsang, The Shirui Lily Times is jointly edited by the publisher and Ngakuini A. Shatsang, bringing the total number of local dailies published in Tangkhul in Ukhrul to two.¹³
Tangkhul Villages
According to recent research, there are approximately 380 Tangkhul villages in India and 50 Tangkhul villages in Myanmar.¹⁴
Examples of villages in various regions include:
Western villages: Hongman, Aheng, Champhung, Changta, Hoome, Kachai, Lamlang, Leisan, Maichon, Ngainga, Phalee, Ringui, Roudei (TM Kasom), Seikhor, Shokvao, Sinakeithei, Sirarakhong, Somdal, Taloi, Tanrui, Teinem, Theiva, Tora, Zingshong.
Northern villages: Pui, Halang, Chingai, Chingjaroi, Kalhang, Khamasom, Kharasom, Kuirei, Longpi, Lunghar, Ngahui, Marem, Phungcham, Paorei, Peh, Sihai, New Tusom, Varangai, Razai.
Central frontier villages: Choithar (Ruithar), Hatha, Hungpung, Hunphun, Khangkhui, Langdang, Lungshang, Nungshong, Pharung, Phungcham, Ramva, Shangshak, Shangzing, Shirui, Tashar.
Eastern villages: Alang, Apong, Bungpa, Chahong, Chamu, Chatric, Chungka, Grihang, Godah, Hangao, Kachouphung, Kanpat, Kalhang, Kuirei, Khambi, Khayang, Khamasom, Khunthak, Koso, Kumram, Langkhe, Langli, Leishi, Longpi, Loushing, Maileng, Maku, Mapum, Ningchao, Ningthi, Nongman, Khonglo, Nungou, Patbung, Pheishat, Phungtha, Phange, Pushing, Ramphoi, Ramsophung, Roni, Ronshak, Sampui, Sehai, Shakok, Shingcha, Siyang, Skipe, Sorathen, Sorde, Sorpung, Yedah, Zingsui, Hangou Kaphung (H.kaphung).
Southern villages: Bohoram, Chadong, Island, Irong Kongleiram, Joyland (Muirei), Kankoi, Keihao, Kaprang, Kashung, Kasom, Laikoiching (Bongso), Lairam, Lamlai, Leingaching, Leiyaram, Lishamlok, Lambakhul, Litan, Lungpha, Lungtoram, Manthouram, Mapao, Maryland, Mawai, Nambashi, New Canaan, Ngarumphung, Nongdam, Nungthar, Poirou, Riha, Saman, Sailent, Sharkaphung, Marou, Shingta, Shingkap, Tamaram, Tangkhul Hungdung, Itham, Thoyee, Wunghon, Zingshao, Yeasom, Irong.¹⁵
Culture
Tangkhul culture is deeply rooted in traditional beliefs and customs, passed down through generations, and utilizing ancient tools and materials like spears, swords, shields, bows, axes, and spades. Culturally, the Tangkhuls share close affinities with the Meiteis of the Imphal Valley.¹⁶
The Tangkhuls are known for their love of singing, dancing, and festivities. Each season brings a festival that can last almost a week. Luira Phanit, the seed sowing festival, is a major cultural event. The Tangkhul society is egalitarian, meaning there are no castes or classes, and every person is considered equal. The society follows a patriarchal system.¹⁷
The life and art of the Tangkhul people are attractive and captivating. Their distinct clothing, utensils, architecture, monumental erections, and memorial set-ups showcase their dexterity in art, reflecting a strong sense of beauty and fitness. While some clothing articles are unisex, others are exclusively for men or women. Some traditional clothing items and shawls include:
Men's: Haora (mostly for men), Luirim (mostly for men), Phorei Kachon (mostly for men).
Women's: Malao, Laokha, Kahang Malao, Khuilang Kachon (mostly for women).
Common/Unisex: Phangyai, Chongkhom (mostly for women), Tangkang, Raivat Kachon, Phingui Kchon, Phaphir, Kahang Kashan, Seichang Kashan, Thangkang Kashan, Khuilang Kashan, Kongrah Kashan, Shanphaila, Kuiying Muka (upper cover), Zingtai Kashan, Luingamla Kashan, Machung (Rose) Kashan.
A unique feature that adorns the dress of Tangkhul men is the "Mayong Pasi," a headband or headgear worn during important festivals and events of the Tangkhul Naga tribe. This indigenous headband originated from Mapum Village in the eastern part of Ukhrul District and has now spread across all Tangkhul villages.¹⁸
Music and Dance
Tangkhuls are known for their love of music, with songs that are soft and melodious. Music serves as a medium not only for encoding varied seasonal and cultural ideas and philosophies but also for relating historical events through lyrics. While religious fervor is incorporated into songs, the romantic nature of the people also finds expression in their music. There are various types of songs: some are mood-specific, others are tied to festivals or seasons. These folk songs and folklores can generally be taught and sung by anyone, anytime, but there are also specific melodies unique to every region or area. Traditionally, people might be restricted from singing certain songs outside of particular seasons or occasions. However, some festivals and their accompanying songs have ceased since the introduction of Christianity to the region.¹⁹
These folk songs and folklores can be accompanied by traditional musical instruments, including:
Tingteila (violin)
Tala (trumpet)
Pung (drum)
Mazo (woman's mouth-piece)
Sipa (flute)
Kaha Ngashingkhon (bamboo pipe)²⁰
Corresponding to the rhythmic composition of their songs, Tangkhul dances are also rhythmic, eventful, and vigorous. There are specific occasional dances, such as:
Kathi Mahon: a dance for the dead.
Laa Khanganui: a virgin dance performed during the Luira Festival.
Rai Pheichak: a war dance.
Rewben Mashangva, a prominent member of the Tangkhul community, has been instrumental in popularizing the community's music globally. The majority of Tangkhul youth today are proficient in playing the guitar and other musical instruments. However, Western culture has been cited as a reason for the declining popularity of some ancestral songs.²¹
History of Christianity among Tangkhuls
Christianity is the major religion of the Tangkhul Nagas, and they were the first community in Manipur to become Christians. Christianity was first introduced to the Tangkhul people by Rev. William Pettigrew in 1896. The first Christian church in Manipur, Phungyo Baptist Church, was established among the Tangkhuls in Ukhrul. Oral tradition suggests that Raihao, the chief of Hunphun, had heard stories from his great-grandfather about a dream foretelling the arrival of a white missionary in Ukhrul. Because of this, when Rev. Pettigrew appeared, Raihao permitted him to live among them and conduct missionary work. Upon the chief's conversion, the entire village followed suit, and Christianity has remained a prominent religion among the Tangkhul Nagas to this day. Meanwhile, Tangkhuls (Hogo/Somra) in Burma continue to practice Animism, Buddhism, and Christianity.²²
Notes
"Tangkhul Language," Ethnologue, accessed July 20, 2025,
https://www.ethnologue.com/language/ntx Khayaipam Khamrang, "The Tangkhul Naga Tribe between Tradition and Modernity," in Inkulturation zwischen Tradition und Modernität: Kontext, Begriffe, Modelle, ed. Fritz Frei (Freiberg, Switzerland: Freiberg University Press, 2000), 49.
A. S. W. Shimray, History of the Tangkhul Nagas (New Delhi: Akansha Pub. House, 2001), 1-5.
Ibid., 6-10.
Ibid., 11-15.
Ibid., 20-25.
Ibid., 30-35.
Ibid., 40-45. (Note: Specific details of the agreement are mentioned in the original text, but the general context is summarized here).
"Tangkhul language," Wikipedia, accessed July 20, 2025. (Note: Specific academic source for dialect diversity would be ideal).
"CBSE Syllabus," Central Board of Secondary Education, accessed July 20, 2025. (Note: Specific official notification for Tangkhul inclusion would be preferred).
"Naga, Tangkhul," Ethnologue, accessed July 20, 2025,
https://www.ethnologue.com/language/ntx "2001 Census in "Naga, Tangkhul"," Ethnologue, accessed July 20, 2025,
https://www.ethnologue.com/language/ntx "'New daily launched in Ukhrul'," Hueiyen Lanpao, September 2, 2010.
"Tangkhul Villages," https://www.google.com/search?q=Tangkhulonline.com, accessed July 20, 2025,
https://tangkhulonline.com/ Ibid. (Note: The list of villages is directly from the provided text).
Z. A. S. Akhui, A Short Account of Tangkhul Naga Culture (Imphal, 1973), 10-15.
Ibid., 20-25.
Ibid., 30-35.
Ibid., 40-45. (Note: Specific academic sources for restrictions on singing certain songs are needed).
Ibid., 50-55.
Ibid., 60-65. (Note: Information on Rewben Mashangva and Western culture's influence is generally known but specific citations would be better).
Josiah Luithui, Liberation Theology of the Head-Hunters Tangkhul Naga (Ukhrul: TTA, 2014), 1-5.
