The Mao, also known as Memei or Ememei in their own language, are one of the prominent Naga tribes found in the northeastern part of India and along the western border region of Myanmar.¹ They primarily inhabit the northern part of Manipur State, India. Their territory is bordered by various other Naga tribes: the Angami and Chakhesang to the north, the Maram Naga and Zeme Naga to the west and south, and the Tangkhul and Poumai tribes to the east.² The term 'Mao' also refers to the geographical area where most of their old and original villages are situated, distinct from newer settlements in their expanded habitation.³
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Origin and Uses of the Term
Etymology
The people known today as the "Mao" (the proper name of the tribe) do not refer to themselves by this term in their native language; instead, they continue to use **"Memei" or "Ememei."**⁴ The term "Mao" is of external origin and is not part of their indigenous vocabulary. Its popularity rose with the arrival of the British in the 19th century in the Naga areas, where it was extensively used to refer to the group inhabiting the hilly ranges immediately south of the then Naga Hills district of Assam.⁵
The term "Mao" is likely derived from "Momei" or "Maomei," a combination of "Mao" (the proper name) and "mei" (meaning people), a name used by their southern neighbors, the Marams. As the Meiteis of the Manipur valley interacted with the Maos through trade relations, possibly via the Marams, the Maram term might have been shortened to "Mao" by the Meiteis, omitting the suffix "mei."⁶
The term "Mao" is currently used for the specific tribal group. Until the early 21st century, the name "Mao" was applied more broadly, encompassing the Memei (now known as the Mao) and the Poumais. This larger group was a heterogeneous blend of four main dialect groups: the Memei, Paomata, Lepaona, and Chiilevei sub-groups. In earlier times, they were collectively called 'Shiipfomei' in the Memei dialect and 'Shepoumai' in the Poumai dialect. Over time, differences concerning the use of particular dialects for literary and other common purposes, along with other external factors, led to their division into two distinct groups. The Memeis retained the name 'Mao', while the other three sub-groups formed the separate Poumai tribe.⁷
Today, "Mao" also designates the geographical area where the traditional and older Memei villages are located, differentiating it from newer settlements. The broader area is referred to as Mao, while the small township developed along National Highway 39 is known as 'Mao Gate.' This name likely originated from the inter-State border post/gate between Nagaland and Manipur situated in the town area. Adjectivally, "Mao" is used to qualify names or objects, such as "Mao people," "Mao dialect," "Mao vegetable," or "Mao land."⁸
Language
The Mao language is typically classified as one of the Angami-Pochuri languages, an independent branch of the Tibeto-Burman languages, according to George van Driem.⁹ Although other classifications may differ, it is generally considered one of the languages forming the Naga group within the Kuki-Chin-Naga genus of the Tibeto-Burman subfamily of the Sino-Tibetan family.¹⁰
The Mao language exhibits considerable variations in tonality, spelling, and pronunciation across different Mao villages, suggesting limited historical interaction between these communities. Many physical and metaphysical objects are referred to by different names in different villages. The degree of variation expands significantly with neighboring dialect groups like the Poumai and Angami, although Maos can communicate fully with many villages in the Poumai group and to some extent with the Angami group.¹¹
A popular Mao folklore, preserved through an old folksong, narrates a story about the origin of language and script. It tells of three brothers, descendants of the first man, each receiving a language and a script inscribed on different materials from their father. The eldest received a script on bark, the middle on a bamboo culm sheath, and the youngest (ancestor of the Nagas) on a hide. Being the youngest, the Naga forefather casually placed his scroll beside his bed, where it was eventually lost, believed to have been nibbled by mice. This loss, according to the folklore, deprived the Nagas of a crucial tool for the advancement of knowledge. Later interactions with the elder brothers, who were reluctant to accept the youngest as an equal, fueled suspicions of a conspiracy to deprive him of the script.¹²
Similar stories are shared by various unrelated tribes, including the Khasis, Kukis, and several other Naga tribes. A compelling hypothesis suggests these stories represent a **"tribal memory of time when they were associated with a literate civilization, perhaps in Southeast Asia or China, before their migration to India. Being peripheral to that civilization, they were unable to preserve its literacy skills once their migrations began."**¹³
Mao in Naga Tradition
The Mao village of Makhel holds a central and sacred place in Naga tradition.¹⁴ It is believed to be a historical settlement where various Naga tribes once resided before dispersing to their current habitations. At Makhel, they reportedly erected monuments symbolizing their communion and a pledge for future reunion. The village and its surrounding areas contain several historical and mythological monuments and relics that are of significant interest to ethnographers, historians, and cultural anthropologists. These artifacts and associated mythologies provide crucial insights into their past, helping to piece together their otherwise obscure history, which is often shrouded in legends.¹⁵
Many scholars have attempted to reconstruct the migratory map of the Naga tribes by analyzing their diverse folklores. While details and conclusions often vary, there is broad acceptance that Nagas migrated in waves, with two major waves being relatively well-documented.¹⁶
The larger of these two waves points to the Mao village of Makhel (Makhrai Rabu in Mao language), and also to Khezhakenoma, a Chakhesang village located 7-8 kilometers north of Makhel. This group includes the Mao, Poumai, Maram, Thangal, Angami, Chakhesang, Rengma, Lotha, Sema, and Zeliangrong tribes. Some other groups also share the belief of a Makhel origin. While tribes further from Makhel have less distinct accounts, the Maos, Poumais, Marams, Angamis, Chakhesangs, and Zeliangrongs clearly identify Makhel as their place of origin, indicating that they once lived there before moving to their current areas. The groups claiming Makhel origin are collectively known as the Tenyimias. However, some additional tribes, not originally part of the Tenyimia group, have also come to share the Makhel legends.¹⁷
Although the ancestors of these tribes once lived in Makhel and its surrounding areas, population growth likely compelled them to expand and seek new habitations. Popular folklore recounts that before their departure, they converged at the foot of a wild pear tree, believed to be the sacred tree still standing at Shajouba, approximately a kilometer from Makhel. Here, they reportedly made a pact to reunite one day.¹⁸
Tribes that migrated northwards, such as the Angamis, Chakhesangs, Rengmas, Lothas, and Semas, also mention Khezhakenoma as a place where they once resided. In contrast, the tribes that moved westward, eastward, and southward—including the Maos, Poumais, Marams, Thangals, and Zeliangrongs—do not mention Khezhakenoma in their folklore. This suggests that the northern tribes, upon dispersing from Makhel, likely took the Khezhakenoma route and settled there for a period.¹⁹
The second major wave of migration can be inferred from the folklores of the Aos, some Konyaks, and a section of the Chang tribe. The Aos narrate their emergence from stones called Lungterok (meaning six stones in Ao language) at Chongliyimti, located in the present-day Sangtam area. This group, collectively known as the Chongliyimti clan, is widely spread across various areas in the northern part of the Naga country. These waves of migration are believed to be the final stages of a much larger and older migration that commenced from the confluence of Mongolia and China, spreading across Southeast Asia, Tibet, and the northeastern part of South Asia in prehistoric times.²⁰
Folklores and Tradition
The land of the Maos is rich in cultural heritage, evidenced by a fascinating tradition of constructing monuments such as menhirs, monoliths, megaliths, and flat platforms built with boulders. Each of these monuments is intrinsically linked to a significant event, ritual, or feast. The parting of ways – whether among the three sons of the first mother, the brothers descended from the first man Omei, or the Naga brothers – is also commemorated with these monuments. Legends suggest that these partings were peaceful and spontaneous, with tribes assembling at these monument sites to bid farewell. Intriguingly, in each stage of the mythology concerning the origin of mankind, it was the youngest son who inherited the motherland, a decision made by the first mother for her three sons. This suggests that ultimogeniture, the practice where the youngest child inherits the primary share of the family property, especially the parental home, has historically been a practice among the Maos.²¹
Mythical Origin of Mankind
At Chazhilophi, south of Makhel (Makhrai Rabu), a Mao Naga village in Manipur, stand three menhirs. Two, representing Orah (God) and Omei (mankind), stand upright on the eastern side, while the third, representing Okhe (Tiger), lies flat on a cairn on the western side. These menhirs commemorate the meeting of the three brothers—Okhe, Orah, and Omei—who, in Mao mythology, are said to have descended from a common mother. Makhel (Makhrai Rabu) is also believed to be the ancestral village of the Nagas, where they first settled after years of migration before further dispersing to their current habitations.²²
The village of Makhel and its surrounding areas are a treasure trove for ethnographers and archaeologists due to the various artifacts and the endless stories and legends associated with them.²³
A prominent legend in Mao folklore tells of the first woman, Dziilimosiiro (or Dziilimosiia, depending on dialectal variation), from whom all of mankind descended. One day, while she slept under a banyan tree, a column of clouds enveloped her, leading to her conception. She gave birth to Okhe (Tiger), Orah (God), and Omei (Man), in that order, with Okhe as the eldest and Omei the youngest.²⁴
As their mother aged and fell ill, each son took turns caring for her. The story recounts that when Okhe stayed with her, he pestered her by pointing to parts of her body and saying he would eat them after her death. On days Orah nursed her, her illness worsened. However, when Omei cared for her, the mother was content due to his diligent attention. Fearing her death on a day when Okhe or Orah would be present, Omei decided to ensure she died peacefully while he was with her. He gathered wild chilies, cooked them into a soup, believing it would slowly end her life. Surprisingly, upon consuming the soup, the mother felt better and requested more. Fortunately, she died while Omei was with her. Omei, following his mother's pre-death instructions, buried her beneath the family hearth and meticulously replaced the hearth stones to conceal the burial. He also dug in various other places to create a widespread appearance of disturbed earth. When Okhe returned and found their mother absent, he questioned Omei. Omei revealed the truth of their mother's death but refused to disclose the burial site. Okhe frantically dug at all disturbed locations but failed to find the body, overlooking the hearth, as it didn't occur to him. This legend is believed to be the origin of the tradition, though now uncommon, of burying the dead beneath the family hearth.²⁵
Over time, conflicts arose among the three brothers. Okhe, the tiger, constantly sought an opportunity to harm Omei. Wary of Okhe's intentions, Omei created a sleeping place high on the roof, beyond Okhe's reach. One day, Okhe saw Omei's reflection in a long tubular water drum below. Mistaking it for Omei himself, Okhe dived in, only to find the drum full of water. The splash awakened Omei, who then devised a plan to eliminate his menacing brother. Innocently, Omei asked Okhe what he feared most. Okhe replied that nothing frightened him except the sound of a booming thunder. Seizing this information, Omei took a hollowed gourd, placed pebbles inside, and tied it to Okhe’s waist while he slept. He then sounded his bugle, made from a tubular plant called 'makhi', sharply into Okhe’s ears. Hearing the loud sound, Okhe leaped up and fled. As the pebbles in the gourd rattled with each leap, Okhe fled deep into the dark jungle in the western hills (Evele). Meanwhile, Orah decided to go south (Kashiilei), to the warm lowland valley. Thus, the three brothers went their separate ways.²⁶
In an alternative version, the conflict over inheriting the motherland (referred to as the 'navel' of the earth, symbolizing the central territory) was resolved through a race, at the mother's instruction. She set up three stone monoliths as targets, one for each son, decreeing that the first to reach or touch theirs would be the heir. In the first race, Okhe won. However, their mother, favoring her youngest son Omei, accused Okhe of a false start. She then instructed Omei to create a bow and use an arrow to hit his target. Omei did so, claiming his right to the motherland, which his mother approved.²⁷
A variation of this second version states that the contest occurred after the mother's death. The target was a bunch of leaves rolled on a twig, called prodzii in Mao language. Orah, being compassionate towards Omei, who often faced bullying from the physically stronger Okhe, instructed Omei to use an arrow to hit the target (unlike the version where the mother gives the instruction). Omei followed, claiming his right to the heartland or motherland. The three menhirs at Chazhilophi, near Makhel village, representing Tiger, Spirit, and Man, were erected to commemorate these three brothers who once coexisted.²⁸
Omei, who occupied the 'navel' of the universe, had three sons: Alapha (eldest), Tutowo (middle), and Khephio (youngest). Not much is said about Alapha and Tutowo, as they are considered the ancestors of non-Naga peoples. According to legend, the Nagas descended from Khephio, the youngest of the three brothers. As Khephio's descendants grew in number, they eventually dispersed, leaving Khephio and his lineage to occupy the motherland. Folklore states that they erected a memorial (a monolith) to commemorate their parting of ways. Over time, Khephio's descendants, the Nagas, also had to disperse and move in different directions.²⁹
At this stage, the legendary characters, landmarks, and events become more interpretable as sources for Naga history. While necessarily conjectured from oral traditions, understanding their history relies on folklores, carefully distinguishing more and less reliable aspects through mutually reinforcing material evidence.³⁰
In the mythical origin of mankind, the existence of the first woman, Dziilimosiiro, is not explained but taken for granted. Dr. Xavier P. Mao suggests this is because "the earth is already there and the woman represents the reproductive power of nature."³¹ The concept of 'Kashiilei,' meaning the warm lowland valley or wasteland, indicates that in their imagination, the Nagas did not consider it suitable for human habitation, possibly due to prevalent warfare among villages and common illnesses associated with warm climates.³²
Notes
"Mao," Wikipedia, accessed July 20, 2025,
. Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
George van Driem, Languages of the Himalayas: An Ethnolinguistic Handbook of the Greater Himalayan Region (Leiden: Brill, 2001).
"Mao Naga language," WALS Online, accessed July 20, 2025,
. "Mao," Wikipedia, accessed July 20, 2025,
. Ibid.
Frederick S. Downs, Christianity in North East India: Historical Perspectives (New Delhi: ISPCK, 1983), Note 187.
M. Alemchiba, A Brief Historical Account of Nagaland (Kohima: Naga Institute of Culture, 1970).
R. Vashum, Nagas’ Right to Self-Determination (New Delhi: Mittal Publications, 2005).
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
"Mao," Wikipedia, accessed July 20, 2025,
. Daili Neli, "Makhrai Hrii (Makhel Race)," in Celebration of 50 Years: Mao Nagas in Delhi (1961-2011) - A Commemorative Souvenir-cum-Report (New Delhi: Mao Welfare Association, Delhi, 2011).
"Mao," Wikipedia, accessed July 20, 2025,
. Ibid.
Ibid. (Note: The Mao term for fever is Orah maki, meaning 'in the gripping teeth of God').
Ibid.
Ibid.
Daili Neli, "Makhrai Hrii (Makhel Race)," in Celebration of 50 Years: Mao Nagas in Delhi (1961-2011) - A Commemorative Souvenir-cum-Report (New Delhi: Mao Welfare Association, Delhi, 2011).
"Mao," Wikipedia, accessed July 20, 2025,
. Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
