Female Dormitory Institutions of the Zeme Nagas by Yihingle Ndang

 1. Review of the Paper

This paper explores the female dormitory system (Releiki) of the Zeme Naga community in Northeast India. Traditionally, Zeme villages maintained both male (Rehangki) and female (Releiki) dormitories, which were far more than sleeping spaces. They served as centers of education, oral traditions, storytelling, music, and cultural training, shaping the collective identity of the community.

The author highlights that while male dormitories have been widely studied, female dormitories remain undervalued in historical and anthropological accounts. Through folk songs, oral histories, and women’s narratives, this research restores the importance of Releiki as a cultural institution.

The paper also addresses the decline of dormitory institutions due to the spread of Christianity, modern schooling, and social change. This shift led to the erosion of women’s roles in oral history, folk singing, and traditional art forms. Yet, the memories of weaving songs, rituals, and collective life within Releiki demonstrate how women preserved identity, resisted gendered limitations, and contributed to knowledge systems.

👉 In sum, this is an important feminist re-reading of Naga traditions, showing how women’s spaces like the Releiki were central to community life, cultural continuity, and the preservation of oral heritage.

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2. Extracting English-Similar Words for a Dictionary

From the paper, many Zeme words and phrases were used, often with English explanations. I’ve extracted the ones that can form a mini dictionary:

Zeliangrong–English Glossary (Rongmei, Zeme, Liangmai)

Tribe / Term	English Meaning	Cultural Context
Rongmei – Gaan Ngai	Winter festival	Major Rongmei post-harvest festival; includes rituals, songs, dances, and honoring ancestors.
Rongmei – Namthi	Rice beer	Traditional brew offered in festivals and rituals, symbol of hospitality.
Rongmei – Napkaomei	Village council	Traditional governing body that handles justice, land, and community issues.
Rongmei – Tingkao Ragwang	Supreme God	The creator deity worshipped by the Rongmei and other Zeliangrong tribes.
Rongmei – Khangchiu	Male dormitory	Institution for young men, similar to Zeme rehangki, where training and socialization occurred.
Rongmei – Luchiu	Female dormitory	Equivalent to Zeme releiki, where young women learned folk songs, weaving, and cultural duties.
Zeme – Releiki	Female dormitory	Space for young Zeme women’s collective life, music, and oral traditions until marriage.
Zeme – Rehangki	Male dormitory	Space for male youth training in warfare, rituals, and community leadership.
Zeme – Bungtak	Village founding ritual	Sacred mithun ritual marking new settlements.
Zeme – Kizeupui	House mother	Woman caretaker of female dormitories.
Liangmai – Hega Ngi	Seed-sowing festival	Liangmai’s biggest festival, similar in significance to Rongmei’s Gaan Ngai.
Liangmai – Marui	Sacred feast	Ritual feast involving mithun, performed for prosperity and social honor.
Liangmai – Duilou	Ancestral spirits	Honored in rituals and oral traditions.
Common – Tingwang / Tingkao Ragwang	Creator God	Worshipped across Zeliangrong tribes (Rongmei, Zeme, Liangmai) as the supreme deity.
Common – Mithun (Bos frontalis)	Semi-domesticated bison	Central to rituals, wealth status, and village founding across Zeliangrong tribes.

Zisaji Presidency College, Kiphire, India. The Highlander Journal, Volume 4 (1): 2025, 38–4

DOI: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.16080987

© Yihingle Ndang, 2025. Published under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International licence

10 Naga Tribes in India with Largest Population Size in Descending order

Determining the precise, up-to-the-minute population figures for all Naga tribes can be challenging due to variations in census data, academic estimates, and the inclusion of populations residing outside Nagaland (e.g., in Manipur, Assam, and Arunachal Pradesh). However, based on available information,  the list of 10 Naga tribes in India, generally considered to be among the largest by population, in descending order:

Image Source

1. Sümi (Sema) Naga: Estimates for the Sümi tribe's population vary, but they are often cited as one of the largest, with figures around 363,000.¹

2. Konyak Naga: The Konyaks are consistently listed as a major Naga tribe, with populations estimated around 244,477 to 320,000 individuals.²

3. Ao Naga: The Ao tribe is another prominent group, with their population in Nagaland estimated at around 226,626 to 250,000.³

4. Chakhesang Naga: This tribe, formed from a conglomeration of smaller groups, has a population estimated around 154,874 to 195,000.⁴

5. Lotha Naga: The Lotha tribe's population is estimated to be around 173,111 to 231,000.⁵

6. Angami Naga: The Angami tribe is a significant group, with their population generally considered to be substantial, although precise, consistently cited figures can vary. Some sources indicate populations that would place them among the larger groups.⁶

7. Zeliangrong (Zeme, Liangmai, Rongmei) Naga: This is a collective term for three closely related tribes (Zeme, Liangmai, and Rongmei). The Zeme alone are estimated at around 130,000.⁷

8. Sangtam Naga: The Sangtam population is estimated around 74,994 to 119,000.⁸

9. Rengma Naga: The Rengma population in Nagaland is about 62,951, with additional populations in Assam, bringing their total to around 85,000.⁹

10. Pochury Naga: The Pochury tribe has a population estimated around 24,000.¹⁰

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¹ PeopleGroups.org, "Sema Naga - India," accessed August 20, 2025, https://www.peoplegroups.org/Explore/groupdetails.aspx?peid=41651.

² Sanchika - Central Institute of Indian Languages, "Konyak Naga," accessed August 20, 2025, https://sanchika.ciil.org/collections/8ce5672e-48fc-492a-a5dd-a508fda9d8b7; Wikipedia, "Konyak Naga," accessed August 20, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konyak_Naga.

³ Wikipedia, "Ao Naga," accessed August 20, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ao_Naga.

⁴ Wikipedia, "Chakhesang Naga," accessed August 20, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chakhesang_Naga; PeopleGroups.org, "Chakhesang Naga - India," accessed August 20, 2025, https://www.peoplegroups.org/Explore/groupdetails.aspx?peid=41748.

⁵ Wikipedia, "Lotha Naga," accessed August 20, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotha_Naga; PeopleGroups.org, "Lotha Naga - India," accessed August 20, 2025, https://www.peoplegroups.org/explore/GroupDetails.aspx?peid=41755.

⁶ Eco India, "Angami Tribe," accessed August 20, 2025, http://www.ecoindia.com/tribes/angami.html. Note: Specific population numbers are not as consistently cited as for other tribes in readily available sources, but they are recognized as a major group.

⁷ Wikipedia, "Zeme people," accessed August 20, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeme_people. The Zeliangrong umbrella includes Zeme, Liangmai, and Rongmei, whose combined population would be significantly higher.

⁸ PeopleGroups.org, "Sangtam Naga - India," accessed August 20, 2025, https://www.peoplegroups.org/explore/GroupDetails.aspx?peid=41909; Wikipedia, "Sangtam Naga," accessed August 20, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sangtam_Naga.

⁹ Wikipedia, "Rengma Naga," accessed August 20, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rengma_Naga; Legacy IAS Academy, "About The Rengma Naga Tribe," accessed August 20, 2025, https://www.legacyias.com/about-the-rengma-naga-tribe/.

¹⁰ PeopleGroups.org, "Pochury Naga - India," accessed August 20, 2025, https://www.peoplegroups.org/explore/GroupDetails.aspx?peid=49624.

Microtoponyms and Oral Tradition: A Toponymic of Nagas of Khamsom (Kisumai) Village," by Daveirou Lanamai

"Microtoponyms and Oral Tradition: A Toponymic of Nagas of Khamsom (Kisumai) Village," by Daveirou Lanamai, explores the significance of microtoponyms (local, undocumented place names) in the Poumai Naga village of Khamsom (Kisumai) in Manipur, India. It uses ethnographic methods to understand how these place names reflect the village's cultural, geographical, and linguistic contexts, providing insights into the worldview and daily lives of its inhabitants.

Source: Tezpur University

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Key Aspects of the Paper

Toponymy as a Historical Depository

The study emphasizes that

toponyms serve as a rich source of information about settlement history, culture, ecology, belief systems, and topography.

Microtoponyms, specifically, are crucial because they primarily exist in oral tradition and are often unknown to outsiders, offering unique insights into specific communities. They are filled with meaning and values, acting as a window into the world of the people who inherit them.

Place Names and Identity

Place names are not merely labels but are imbued with meaning, values, and are constructed by people rooted in their culture, tradition, and knowledge of the land. They convey cultural and geographical information such as landform topography, historical events, religious practices, and migrations. These names reinforce a strong bond between the people and the land, serving as an essential medium to pass on information, emotions about their history and legends, and a means to educate the youth.

Khamsom (Kisumai) Village as a Case Study

The paper focuses on Khamsom (officially known as Kisumai Village), a Poumai Naga village situated in the Senapati district of Manipur, Northeast India. According to the 2011 Indian Census Report, the village has 255 households with a total population of 1772. Traditionally, the Poumai Nagas reside in three administrative zones: Paomata, Lepaona, and Chilüvai, with Kisumai falling under the Lepaona administrative area. The village lacks proper written historical documentation, making oral traditions and place names vital for understanding its past. The village name "Kisumai" itself is descriptive; in Poula (Poumai language), "Kisu" means ladder and "mai" means people, translating to "the people who established their village by climbing ladders". This refers to early settlers using ladders to cross huge and high rocky terrains, which later served as a fortress.

Methodology

The research employed

ethnographic fieldwork to investigate and explore socio-cultural and geographic elements of place names. Data collection exclusively relied on fieldwork due to a lack of archival sources. The primary method of data collection was through.

individual interviews and focus group discussions (FGDs) conducted between December 2024 and January 2025. Thirty informants (20 male and 10 female), aged between 20-80 years, were selected using purposive and snowball sampling techniques to gather diverse perspectives. The interviews were semi-structured, allowing flexibility to obtain insights into what interviewees deemed relevant and important. The researcher, being an inhabitant of the village, ensured initial contact was smooth while maintaining an objective research approach to avoid preconceived notions.

Significance of Microtoponyms in Khamsom (Kisumai)

Geographical Reflection

Many place names in Khamsom (Kisumai) village describe various physical features such as vegetation, landscapes, and waterbodies. Examples include:

• Ngaphü: Refers to a residential locality meaning "clear and bright site," situated on an open hilltop that receives early sunlight.

• Khuhouzi: A hill (zi) named for its similarity to the nose (hou) of a stag (khu).

• Houchu: Another hill named after the comb (chu) of a rooster (hou).

  These names also serve as mnemonic devices for navigation, reflecting knowledge about wild animals, vegetation habitats, and soil types.

  Paohurei (elephant stream) and Zaikhaolurei (saline spring stream) are examples where names evoke memories of past interactions with the environment, even if the features (like elephants or saline water collection) are no longer present today. Names like

  Laichitao (bee/wasp hanging on rocky cliffs) and Haobitu (hollow with gooseberry trees) indicate the presence of specific habitats and vegetation important for consumption or medicinal purposes.

Cultural Reflection

Place names are influenced by the social practices, belief systems, and moral norms of the people who named them. For instance:

• Kisumai Huphü: The name for the new settlement area established in 1960, signifies "site where Christians and indigenous believers reside together" (Hu = together, phü = plot/site). This reflects the integration of Christianity, introduced to Kisumai in 1940, with the traditional belief system as the village expanded.

• Bühu: This place name commemorates a legendary hero named Bü, one of the founding fathers of Kisumai, known for his bravery and strength. The story associated with Bühu, the site where Bü faced his final moment after being chased and killed by an elephant he vowed to bring an ear from, serves as a moral lesson about humility and respecting all beings, regardless of one's greatness.

• Savaphii: A locality within the village, named for its open space used for the celebration (Sava) of festivals and other public gatherings.

• Douluphü: The area where the village school is situated, meaning "learning (Doulu) site (phü)," indicating the purpose and importance of education.

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Conclusion

Microtoponyms are vital elements of local cultural heritage, containing geographical information on landscapes and historical accounts of the community. They act as linguistic and community identity markers, transferring memories, legends, and educational teachings through oral narratives. These place names are not only meaningful to the people who named and used them but also act as keepers of knowledge and constant reminders of their past, purpose, uses, and significance. Understanding their meaning is crucial for navigating the local natural environment, preserving language and culture, and promoting sustainable development and conservation.

Source: Paper

The Word: Naga

The term "Naga" itself carries a complex and somewhat contested history regarding its origin and initial application. While it has become the collective ethnonym for numerous distinct tribes inhabiting Northeast India and parts of Myanmar, its etymology and the circumstances of its first use are subjects of academic debate and diverse interpretations.

Gemini Generated

Definition of "Naga"

Broadly, "Naga" refers to an aggregation of diverse Tibeto-Burman ethnolinguistic groups who primarily reside in the contiguous mountainous regions of Nagaland, Manipur, Arunachal Pradesh, and Assam in India, and the Sagaing Region of Myanmar. Each Naga tribe possesses its own distinct language, customs, traditional attire, and social organization, yet they share a common cultural heritage, including practices like jhum cultivation, strong village governance, and a history of inter-village warfare (including headhunting in some areas historically).¹ The term, therefore, serves as a collective identity that has evolved over time, both internally adopted and externally imposed.

Origin and Etymology of the Term "Naga"

The precise origin of the term "Naga" is highly debated, with several theories proposed by historians, linguists, and anthropologists:

1. Sanskrit/Burmese Origin (Negative Connotation):

   • One widely cited theory suggests the term "Naga" derives from the Sanskrit word "nagna," meaning "naked" or "bare."² This interpretation suggests that the plains people (likely from Assam or Bengal) used this term to describe the hill tribes, who, at the time of initial contact, might have worn minimal clothing.

   • Alternatively, some scholars link it to the Burmese word "na ka," meaning "pierced ears" or "people with pierced ears," referring to the traditional practice of earlobe stretching and ornamentation common among many of these hill tribes.³

   • Another Burmese interpretation suggests a derivation from "naka" or "naga," referring to a snake or serpent. This could be metaphorical, describing their elusive or powerful nature, or perhaps linked to serpentine motifs in their art, though this interpretation is less commonly accepted as the direct origin of the ethnonym.⁴

   • Who used it first (in this context): If these theories hold true, the term was likely first applied by outsiders – plains people from Assam (Ahoms) or Bengal, or Burmese peoples – who encountered these distinct hill tribes. It was thus an exonym, a name given by others.

2. Indigenous Origin (Positive Connotation):

   • A strong counter-argument, particularly favored by Naga scholars and activists, suggests an indigenous origin for the term, which would carry a more positive and self-affirming meaning.

   • Some propose a derivation from the Kachari (Bodo) word "naga," meaning "young men" or "warriors."⁵ This would reflect the martial prowess and independent spirit of the tribes.

   • Another theory connects it to the word "nok" (from various Naga languages like Ao or Tangkhul, meaning "people" or "folk") or variations like "noak" or "noga." This suggests that the term simply meant "people" in their own language, which was then generalized by outsiders.⁶

   • Who used it first (in this context): If derived from indigenous terms, it would have originated within Naga communities themselves, though its adoption as a collective term for diverse tribes would still have required broader usage, possibly facilitated by interaction with plains people.

3. Ahom Kingdom's Influence:

   • The Ahom kingdom of Assam (13th-19th centuries) played a significant role in shaping the administrative and cultural landscape of the region. Historical records suggest that the Ahoms were among the earliest state-level entities to have sustained contact with the hill tribes bordering their kingdom. It is plausible that the Ahoms contributed to the standardization and popularization of the term "Naga" to refer to the various tribes inhabiting the hills to their east and south.⁷ Their chronicles and interactions would have been among the earliest documented instances of such usage.

Conclusion on First Use

Given the historical context, it is generally accepted that the term "Naga" was initially an exonym (a name given by outsiders), likely by the Ahoms of Assam or other plains dwellers, and possibly derived from words in Assamese, Bengali, or Burmese languages that had a descriptive connotation (like "naked" or "pierced ears"). Over time, and particularly during the British colonial period when the administration sought to categorize and control these diverse tribes, the term became institutionalized.⁸

However, it is crucial to note that while initially an external designation, the various tribes later adopted and internalized the term "Naga" as a unifying identity, especially in the context of resisting colonial rule and asserting their collective political and cultural rights. This process transformed an imposed label into a powerful symbol of pan-Naga solidarity.

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Notes

1. J. P. Mills, The Ao Nagas (London: Macmillan and Co., 1926), 1-5.

2. J. H. Hutton, The Angami Nagas (London: Macmillan and Co., 1921), 2-3.

3. Ibid.

4. Subhadra Mitra Channa, "The Nagas: A Socio-Cultural Profile," Indian Anthropologist 38, no. 1/2 (2008): 1-14.

5. Gangmumei Kamei, A History of Modern Manipur (1826-1949) (New Delhi: Spectrum Publications, 2004), 30-35.

6. Julian Jacobs, The Nagas: Hill Peoples of Northeast India: Society, Culture and the Colonial Encounter (London: Thames and Hudson, 1990), 10-12.

7. S. L. Barua, A Comprehensive History of Assam (New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 1993), 200-205.

8. Jacobs, The Nagas, 15-18.